Empress Dowager Cixi vs Yuan Shikai

Cixi supported the Self-Strengthening Movement, which modernized China's military and infrastructure. Arsenals, shipyards, and railways were built, and the Tongwen Guan language school was established. However, the movement avoided political reform, limiting its effectiveness.

Cixi, with Prince Gong, staged a coup against the eight regents appointed by the dying Xianfeng Emperor. She had the regents arrested and executed, establishing herself as co-regent for the young Tongzhi Emperor. This began her effective control over the Qing government.

Cixi staged a coup to end the Hundred Days' Reform, a series of modernization edicts by the Guangxu Emperor. She imprisoned the emperor, executed six reform leaders, and rescinded most reforms. This reversed political liberalization and strengthened conservative forces.

Cixi declared war on eight foreign powers after the Boxers besieged foreign legations in Beijing. The Eight-Nation Alliance invaded, defeated Qing forces, and occupied Beijing. Cixi fled to Xi'an. The resulting Boxer Protocol imposed heavy reparations and further weakened the Qing.

After the Boxer Rebellion, Cixi initiated the Late Qing Reforms, including abolition of the civil service examination, establishment of modern schools, and military modernization. These reforms aimed to strengthen the dynasty but came too late to prevent its collapse.

Yuan Shikai took command of the Beiyang Army, the most modern military force in late Qing China. He expanded and trained the army, which became the basis for his political power and later dominated Chinese politics.

Yuan Shikai became the first president of the Republic of China after negotiating the abdication of the Qing emperor. He used his control of the Beiyang Army to pressure the revolutionary government into accepting his leadership.

Yuan Shikai declared himself emperor of the Empire of China, attempting to restore the monarchy. This move sparked widespread opposition from provincial leaders and foreign powers, leading to the collapse of his regime.

Yuan Shikai accepted most of Japan's Twenty-One Demands, which expanded Japanese influence in China. The agreement granted Japan economic rights in Manchuria and Shandong, and was seen as a national humiliation.

Yuan Shikai died of uremia, leaving no clear successor. His death led to the fragmentation of the Beiyang Army into warlord factions, plunging China into a period of civil war and political instability.