Hafez al-Assad

Hafez al-Assad, then Minister of Defense, launched a bloodless intra-party coup known as the Corrective Movement on November 13, 1970. He ousted the civilian leadership of the Ba'ath Party, assumed the presidency, and established an authoritarian regime dominated by the Alawite minority.

Assad coordinated with Egypt's Anwar Sadat to launch a surprise attack on Israel on October 6, 1973. Syrian forces advanced into the Golan Heights but were repelled by Israeli counterattacks. The war ended with a ceasefire, and Syria failed to regain the Golan Heights.

Assad sent Syrian troops into Lebanon to intervene in the civil war, initially against Palestinian and leftist forces. The Syrian military remained in Lebanon for 29 years, exerting political and military control. The intervention solidified Syria's dominance over Lebanese affairs.

Assad ordered the Syrian army to besiege and bombard the city of Hama to suppress an Islamist uprising led by the Muslim Brotherhood. Over several weeks, between 10,000 and 40,000 civilians were killed, and large parts of the city were destroyed. The massacre ended armed opposition for decades.