Empress Dowager Cixi

Cixi supported the Self-Strengthening Movement, which modernized China's military and infrastructure. Arsenals, shipyards, and railways were built, and the Tongwen Guan language school was established. However, the movement avoided political reform, limiting its effectiveness.

Cixi, with Prince Gong, staged a coup against the eight regents appointed by the dying Xianfeng Emperor. She had the regents arrested and executed, establishing herself as co-regent for the young Tongzhi Emperor. This began her effective control over the Qing government.

Cixi staged a coup to end the Hundred Days' Reform, a series of modernization edicts by the Guangxu Emperor. She imprisoned the emperor, executed six reform leaders, and rescinded most reforms. This reversed political liberalization and strengthened conservative forces.

Cixi declared war on eight foreign powers after the Boxers besieged foreign legations in Beijing. The Eight-Nation Alliance invaded, defeated Qing forces, and occupied Beijing. Cixi fled to Xi'an. The resulting Boxer Protocol imposed heavy reparations and further weakened the Qing.

After the Boxer Rebellion, Cixi initiated the Late Qing Reforms, including abolition of the civil service examination, establishment of modern schools, and military modernization. These reforms aimed to strengthen the dynasty but came too late to prevent its collapse.