Al-Mustansir II of Cairo vs Ghazan Khan

Al-Mustansir II led a small military expedition to reclaim Baghdad from the Mongols. The force was ambushed and defeated near Hit by Mongol troops. Al-Mustansir II was killed in the battle, ending his brief caliphate.

Al-Mustansir II was recognized as caliph by the Mamluk Sultan Baybars in Cairo after the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258. This re-established the Abbasid caliphate in exile under Mamluk protection, though the caliph held no temporal power.

Ghazan implemented a comprehensive reform program including tax reform, standardization of weights and measures, land redistribution, and the establishment of a new legal code. He also reformed the military and postal system, stabilizing the Ilkhanate after decades of instability.

Ghazan converted to Islam upon ascending the throne, becoming the first Ilkhan to adopt the faith. He publicly declared Islam the state religion, ordered the destruction of Buddhist temples and churches, and adopted the name Mahmud. This transformed the Ilkhanate's identity.

Ghazan patronized scholars, historians, and scientists, including the vizier Rashid al-Din, who wrote the Jami' al-tawarikh, a world history. Ghazan also built observatories, hospitals, and mosques, contributing to the cultural flowering of the Ilkhanate.

Ghazan led three major invasions of Mamluk Syria, capturing Damascus and Aleppo in 1299

Ghazan's Mongol army defeated the Mamluks under Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad at Wadi al-Khaznadar near Homs. The victory allowed the Mongols to occupy Damascus and Aleppo, but they withdrew after a few months due to logistical problems and the need to return to Persia.