Louis XII

Upon becoming king, Louis XII reduced the taille (land tax) and reformed the judicial system. He established the Grand Conseil to oversee justice and curbed abuses by royal officials. These measures earned him the title 'Father of the People' from the Estates-General.

Louis XII invaded Italy, claiming the Duchy of Milan through his grandmother's lineage. His forces captured Milan without major resistance, and he was proclaimed Duke of Milan. This began the Italian Wars of the early 16th century.

Louis XII married Anne of Brittany, widow of his predecessor Charles VIII. This marriage ensured the permanent union of Brittany with France, ending Breton autonomy. The marriage was politically motivated and required papal dispensation due to consanguinity.

Louis XII joined Pope Julius II, Emperor Maximilian I, and Ferdinand of Aragon in the League of Cambrai, aimed at partitioning Venetian territories. The French victory at Agnadello (1509) initially succeeded, but the alliance later fractured, and France lost its gains.

Louis XII's forces were defeated by the Swiss at Novara, forcing the French to abandon Milan. The defeat ended French control of northern Italy and marked the collapse of Louis's Italian ambitions. The war drained French finances and led to a peace treaty in 1514.