Al-Mustamsik of Cairo vs Toghon Temur

Al-Mustamsik became caliph after the death of Al-Mutawakkil II. His reign occurred during the final decades of the Mamluk Sultanate, a period of decline and external threats.

Al-Mustamsik abdicated the caliphate in favor of his son Al-Mutawakkil III. This was likely done to ensure a smooth succession, but it occurred on the eve of the Ottoman conquest of Egypt.

Toghon Temur was enthroned as Emperor of the Yuan dynasty at age 13, following the death of his predecessor and the fall of the El Temur regency. His reign would be the last of the Yuan dynasty in China.

Toghon Temur, with support from Bayan's nephew Toqto'a, orchestrated a coup that removed the powerful chancellor Bayan from power. This restored imperial authority and reversed Bayan's anti-Chinese policies.

Widespread rebellions, known as the Red Turban Rebellion, erupted across southern China against Yuan rule. Toghon Temur's government struggled to suppress the revolts, which were fueled by famine, corruption, and ethnic tensions.

As Ming forces under Zhu Yuanzhang approached Dadu (Beijing), Toghon Temur fled north to Shangdu, the Yuan summer capital. This marked the end of Mongol rule over China proper and the beginning of the Northern Yuan dynasty.

Toghon Temur died in Yingchang, a Mongol stronghold in Inner Mongolia, two years after fleeing China. His death left the Northern Yuan dynasty in a weakened state, unable to reclaim the lost territories.