Rudolf II

Rudolf II established a renowned court in Prague, attracting alchemists, astronomers, and artists from across Europe. He employed Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler, and his art collection was one of the largest in Europe. However, his obsession with the occult and neglect of governance led to political instability.

Rudolf II's reign saw the outbreak of the Long Turkish War against the Ottoman Empire, which lasted from 1593 to 1606. The war was costly and indecisive, draining the imperial treasury and leading to unrest among the nobility. Rudolf's inability to effectively manage the war contributed to his declining authority.

Rudolf II issued the Letter of Majesty, granting religious freedom to the Protestant estates of Bohemia. This was a concession forced upon him by the Bohemian nobility, who threatened rebellion. The Letter of Majesty became a key document in the lead-up to the Thirty Years' War, as it was later revoked by Rudolf's successor.

Rudolf II was deposed as King of Bohemia by his brother Matthias, who had the support of the Habsburg family and the Bohemian estates. Rudolf was forced to cede the crown of Bohemia to Matthias, retaining only the imperial title. This marked the end of his effective rule and a humiliating defeat.