Aistulf vs Mahmud I of Great Seljuk

Aistulf succeeded his brother Ratchis as king of the Lombards after Ratchis abdicated to become a monk. Aistulf immediately pursued an aggressive expansionist policy, aiming to conquer the remaining Byzantine territories in Italy and the Papal States.

Aistulf captured Ravenna, the capital of the Byzantine Exarchate, ending Byzantine rule in northern Italy. He then demanded tribute from the Pope and threatened Rome, leading to a direct conflict with the Papacy and the Frankish Kingdom.

Aistulf besieged Rome, demanding submission from Pope Stephen II. The Pope appealed to Pepin the Short, King of the Franks, for aid. This event set the stage for Frankish intervention in Italy and the creation of the Papal States.

Pepin the Short invaded Italy and defeated Aistulf's army, forcing him to lift the siege of Rome and surrender territories, including Ravenna, to the Pope. Aistulf was compelled to pay tribute and promise peace, but he soon broke the treaty.

After Aistulf again threatened Rome, Pepin the Short launched a second campaign against the Lombards. Aistulf was defeated again and died shortly after, possibly from a hunting accident. His death ended Lombard expansion and solidified Frankish dominance in Italy.

Following the death of his father Malik Shah I, Mahmud I was proclaimed sultan at age five. His mother Terken Khatun acted as regent, but the succession was contested by his half-brothers Barkiyaruq and others, leading to civil war.

Forces loyal to Mahmud I, led by his mother Terken Khatun and general Kerbogha, fought against Barkiyaruq's army near Al-Ruhaymi in Iraq. Mahmud's forces were defeated, weakening his claim to the sultanate.

Mahmud I died at age seven, likely from illness. His death ended his brief reign and allowed Barkiyaruq to consolidate power as the sole Seljuk sultan, though the empire remained divided by ongoing succession conflicts.