Joseph II of Austria

Joseph II attempted to exchange the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria, provoking the War of the Bavarian Succession against Prussia. The conflict was largely bloodless (the 'Potato War') and ended with the Treaty of Teschen, which denied Joseph his territorial ambitions.

Joseph II issued the Serfdom Patent, abolishing personal serfdom in the Habsburg lands. Peasants were granted freedom of movement, marriage, and the right to leave the land. This was a landmark reform of the Enlightenment era, though implementation was resisted by nobles.

Joseph II issued the Edict of Toleration, granting religious freedom to Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox Christians in the Habsburg monarchy. Jews also received limited rights. This ended the monopoly of the Catholic Church and promoted religious pluralism.

Joseph II dissolved hundreds of monasteries not engaged in education or hospital work, using their wealth to fund state-controlled parishes and schools. He also brought the Catholic Church under state control, a policy known as Josephinism, which alienated the papacy.

Joseph II joined Russia in a war against the Ottoman Empire. The campaign was poorly managed, with Austrian forces suffering from disease and logistical failures. Joseph II died in 1790 before the war ended, with the Treaty of Sistova yielding minimal gains.